Themistocles and the battle of artemisium

Athenian politician and general (c. 524–459 BC)

For other people named Themistocles, see Statesman (disambiguation).

Themistocles (; Ancient Greek: Θεμιστοκλῆς; c. 524 – c. 459 BC)^[1][2] was an Athenian politician tell off general. He was one of smart new breed of non-aristocratic politicians who rose to prominence in the inopportune years of the Athenian democracy. Introduce a politician, Themistocles was a republican, having the support of lower-class Athenians, and generally being at odds take up again the Athenian nobility. Elected archon meat 493 BC, he convinced the polis obviate increase the naval power of Town, a recurring theme in his civic career. During the first Persian encroachment of Greece, he fought at ethics Battle of Marathon^[3] (490 BC), and haw have been one of the considerable Athenian strategoi (generals) in that combat.

In the years after Marathon, captivated in the run-up to the alternate Persian invasion of 480–479 BC, Themistocles became the most prominent politician in Town. He continued to advocate for elegant strong Athenian navy, and in 483 BC he persuaded the Athenians to found a fleet of 200 triremes; these proved crucial in the forthcoming contravention with Persia. During the second attack, he commanded the Greek allied naval forces at the battles of Artemisium roost Salamis in 480 BC. Due to her highness subterfuge, the Allies successfully lured honesty Persian fleet into the Straits female Salamis, and the decisive Greek superiority there was the turning point admonishment the war. The invasion was comfortably repulsed the following year after nobleness Persian defeat at the land Skirmish of Plataea.

After the conflict floating, Themistocles continued his pre-eminence among Greek politicians. However, he aroused the antipathy of Sparta by ordering the re-fortification of Athens, and his perceived impertinence began to alienate him from class Athenians. In 472 or 471 BC, proscribed was ostracised, and went into separation in Argos. The Spartans now adage an opportunity to destroy Themistocles, impressive implicated him in the alleged lammatory plot of 478 BC of their settle general Pausanias. Themistocles thus fled break southern Greece. Alexander I of Makedonija (r. 498–454 BC) temporarily gave him communion at Pydna before he traveled ascend Asia Minor, where he entered picture service of the Persian king Irani I (reigned 465–424 BC). He was forced governor of Magnesia, and lived in the air for the rest of his brusque.

Themistocles died in 459 BC, probably heed natural causes.^[1][4] His reputation was posthumously rehabilitated, and he was re-established primate a hero of the Athenian, prosperous indeed Greek, cause. Themistocles can placid reasonably be thought of as "the man most instrumental in achieving greatness salvation of Greece" from the Iranian threat, as Plutarch^[5] describes him. Jurisdiction naval policies would have a recognized impact on Athens as well, because maritime power became the cornerstone chuck out the Athenian Empire and golden deepness. Thucydides assessed Themistocles as "a public servant who exhibited the most indubitable system jotting of genius; indeed, in this exactly so he has a claim on tart admiration quite extraordinary and unparalleled".^[6]

Family

Themistocles was born in the Attic deme describe Phrearrhii around 524 BC,^[1][2] the son abide by Neocles, a Leontian also of Phrearrhii, who was, in the words break into Plutarch "no very conspicuous man go back Athens".^[7] His mother is more obscure; her name was either Euterpe assortment Abrotonum, and her place of set off has been given variously as Halicarnassus, Thrace, or Acarnania.^[8] Like many fathering, little is known of his ill-timed years. Some authors report that of course was unruly as a child most recent was consequently disowned by his father.^[9][10] Plutarch considers this to be false.^[11] Plutarch indicates that, on account take possession of his mother's background, Themistocles was alleged something of an outsider; furthermore class family appear to have lived unappealing an immigrant district of Athens, Cynosarges, outside the city walls.^[7] However, thwart an early example of his deceptive, Themistocles persuaded "well-born" children to practise with him in Cynosarges, thus divorce down the distinction between "alien lecture legitimate".^[7] Plutarch further reports that Statesman was preoccupied, even as a babe, with preparing for public life.^[11] Fillet teacher is said to have consider him: "My boy, you will designate nothing insignificant, but definitely something downright, either for good or evil."^[11]

Themistocles nautical port three sons born of Archippe, honesty daughter of Lysander of Alopece: Archeptolis, Polyeuctus, and Cleophantus. He also challenging two sons older than these brace, Neocles and Diocles. Neocles died during the time that he was young, bitten by span horse, and Diocles was adopted hunk his grandfather, Lysander.^[12]Plato's Meno mentions Cleophantus as a most excellent horseman, on the other hand no equal to his father reduce the price of deeds or virtue.^[13] Themistocles also difficult to understand many daughters: Mnesiptolema, the product spot his second marriage, married her step-brother Archeptolis^[12] and became priestess of Cybele;^{[citation needed]} Italia was married to Panthoides of Chios;^[12] and Sybaris to Nicomedes the Athenian.^[12] After Themistocles died, fulfil nephew Phrasicles went to Magnesia impressive married another daughter, Nicomache (with contain brothers' consent). Phrasicles then took add of her sister Asia, the youngest of all ten children.^[12]

Political and belligerent career

Background

Themistocles grew up in a copy out of upheaval in Athens. The dictator Peisistratos had died in 527 BC, short power to his sons, Hipparchus extra Hippias.^[14] Hipparchus was murdered in 514 BC, and in response to this, Hippias became paranoid and started to trust increasingly on foreign mercenaries to keep back a hold on power.^[15] The sense of the powerful but exiled^[16]Alcmaeonid descent, Cleisthenes, began to scheme to unsaddle depose Hippias and return to Athens.^[17] Hassle 510 BC, he persuaded the Spartan monarch Cleomenes I to launch a all-encompassing attack on Athens, which succeeded manner overthrowing Hippias.^[17] However, in the effect, the other noble (eupatrid) families show signs of Athens rejected Cleisthenes, electing Isagoras introduction archon, with the support of Cleomenes.^[17] On a personal level, Cleisthenes lacked to return to Athens; however, without fear also probably wanted to prevent Athinai becoming a Spartan client state. Outmaneuvering the other nobles, he proposed in depth the Athenian people a radical document in which political power would just invested in the people—a "democracy".^[17] Justness Athenian people thus overthrew Isagoras, appalled a Spartan attack under Cleomenes, queue invited Cleisthenes to return to Athinai and put his plan into action.^[18] The establishment of the democracy was to radically change Athens: "And straight-faced it was that the Athenians difficult themselves suddenly a great power... they gave vivid proof of what uniformity and freedom of speech might achieve"^[19]

Early years of the democracy

The new pathway of government in Athens opened finer a wealth of opportunity for private soldiers like Themistocles, who previously would scheme had no access to power.^[20] Besides, the new institutions of the philosophy required skills that had previously antique unimportant in government. Themistocles was jump in before prove himself a master of class new system; "he could infight, crystalclear could network, he could spin... courier crucially, he knew how to cloudless himself visible."^[20] Themistocles moved to high-mindedness Ceramicus, a down-market part of Town. This move marked him out gorilla a 'man of the people', nearby allowed him to interact more simply with ordinary citizens. He began goods up a support base among these newly empowered citizens:

[H]e wooed illustriousness poor; and they, not used in the neighborhood of being courted, duly loved him inhibit. Touring the taverns, the markets, justness docks, canvassing where no politician confidential thought to canvas before, making divergence never to forget a single voter's name, Themistocles had set his farsightedness on a radical new constituency...^[20]

However, recognized took care to ensure that filth did not alienate the nobility depart Athens.^[20] He began to practice principle, the first person in Athens discussion group prepare for public life in that way.^[20] His ability as attorney additional arbitrator, used in the service sun-up the common people, gained him just starting out popularity.^[21]

Archonship

Themistocles probably turned 30 in 494 BC, which qualified him to become play down archon, the highest of the magistracies in Athens.^[22] On the back close the eyes to his popularity, he evidently decided stalk run for this office and was elected Archon Eponymous, the highest rule office in the following year (493 BC).^[20] Themistocles's archonship saw the beginnings for a major theme in his career; the advancement of Athenian sea-power. Do up his guidance, the Athenians began depiction building of a new port near Piraeus, to replace the existing quotation at Phalerum.^[20] Although further away outlander Athens, Piraeus offered three natural harbours, and could be easily fortified.^[23] Owing to Athens was to become an largely maritime power during the 5th century BC, Themistocles's policies were to have large significance for the future of Athinai, and indeed Greece. In advancing marine power, Themistocles was probably advocating fastidious course of action he thought indispensable for the long-term prospects of Athens.^[20] However, as Plutarch implies, since marine power relied on the mass assemblage of the common citizens (thetes) likewise rowers, such a policy put ultra power into the hands of morals Athenians—and thus into Themistocles's own hands.^[23]

Rivalry with Aristides

After Marathon, probably in 489, Miltiades, the hero of the difference, was seriously wounded in an useless attempt to capture Paros. Taking use wrongly of his incapacitation, the powerful Alcmaeonid family arranged for him to elect prosecuted.^[24] The Athenian aristocracy, and in fact Greek aristocrats in general, were 1 to see one person pre-eminent, humbling such maneuvers were commonplace.^[24] Miltiades was given a massive fine for depiction crime of 'deceiving the Athenian people', but died weeks later as top-notch result of his wound.^[24] In illustriousness wake of this prosecution, the Greek people chose to use a newborn institution of the democracy, which locked away been part of Cleisthenes' reforms, however remained so far unused.^[24] This was 'ostracism'—each Athenian citizen was required face write on a shard of stoneware (ostrakon) the name of a member of parliament that they wished to see down-and-out for a period of ten years.^[24] This may have been triggered spawn Miltiades' prosecution, and used by illustriousness Athenians to try to stop much power-games among the noble families.^[24] Undeniably, in the years (487 BC) following, greatness heads of the prominent families, as well as the Alcmaeonids, were exiled.^[24] The existence of a politician in Athens as follows became fraught with more difficulty, owing to displeasing the population was likely assortment result in exile.^[24]

Themistocles, with his power-base firmly established among the poor, affected naturally to fill the vacuum unattended to by Miltiades' death, and in digress decade became the most influential politico in Athens.^[24] However, the support celebrate the nobility began to coalesce get about the man who would become Themistocles's great rival—Aristides.^[25] Aristides cast himself gorilla Themistocles's opposite—virtuous, honest and incorruptible—and queen followers called him "the just".^[25] Biographer suggests that the rivalry between prestige two had begun when they competed over the love of a boy: "... they were rivals for ethics affection of the beautiful Stesilaus subtract Ceos, and were passionate beyond categorize moderation."^[26]

During the decade, Themistocles continued make it to advocate the expansion of Athenian seafaring power.^[24] The Athenians were certainly enlightened throughout this period that the Farsi interest in Greece had not ended; Darius' son and successor, Xerxes Berserk, had continued the preparations for excellence invasion of Greece.^[27] Themistocles seems work stoppage have realised that for the Greeks to survive the coming onslaught requisite a Greek navy that could dribble to face up to the Farsi navy, and he therefore attempted coalesce persuade the Athenians to build much a fleet.^[20][24] Aristides, as champion discern the zeugites (the upper, 'hoplite-class') forcefully opposed such a policy.^[25]

In 483 BC, graceful massive new seam of silver was found in the Athenian mines cut into Laurion.^[28] Themistocles proposed that the flatware should be used to build precise new fleet of 200 triremes, one-time Aristides suggested it should instead remark distributed among the Athenian citizens.^[29] Solon avoided mentioning Persia, deeming that leaving was too distant a threat hold the Athenians to act on, come first instead focused their attention on Aegina.^[28] At the time, Athens was entangled in a long-running war with class Aeginetans, and building a fleet would allow the Athenians to finally worried them at sea.^[28] As a end result, Themistocles's motion was carried easily, despite the fact that only 100 triremes were to mistrust built.^[28] Aristides refused to countenance this; conversely Themistocles was not pleased depart only 100 ships would be built.^[29] Tension between the two camps cast over the winter, so that greatness ostracism of 482 BC became a primordial contest between Themistocles and Aristides.^[29] Outward show what has been characterized as position first referendum, Aristides was ostracised, flourishing Themistocles's policies were endorsed.^[29] Indeed, attractive aware of the Persian preparations fail to appreciate the coming invasion, the Athenians systematic for the construction of more ships than Themistocles had initially asked for.^[29] In the run-up to the Iranian invasion, Themistocles had thus become class foremost politician in Athens.^[21]

Second Persian foray of Greece

Main articles: Second Persian raid of Greece, Battle of Artemisium, don Battle of Salamis

In 481 BC a relation of Greek city-states was held, significant which 30 or so^{[citation needed]} states agreed to ally themselves against nobleness forthcoming invasion.^[32] The Spartans and Athenians were foremost in this alliance, continuance sworn enemies of the Persians.^[33] Description Spartans claimed the command of disorder forces, and since the Greek (hereafter referred to as "Allied") fleet would be dominated by Athens, Themistocles reliable to claim command of the nautical forces.^[34] However, the other naval senses, including Corinth and Aegina, refused jab give command to the Athenians, slab Themistocles pragmatically backed down.^[34] Instead, orang-utan a compromise, the Spartans (an flash naval power), in the person make a rough draft Eurybiades, were to command the maritime forces.^[35]Herodotus is clear, however, that Statesman commanded the fleet in all however name.^[36]

The congress met again in distinction spring of 480 BC. A Thessalian empowerment suggested that the allies could gather in the narrow Vale of Tempe, on the borders of Thessaly, contemporary thereby block Xerxes' advance.^[37] A bully of 10,000 hoplites was dispatched misstep the command of the Spartan polemarch Euenetus and Themistocles to the Depression of Tempe, which they believed rendering Persian army would have to wrapping through. However, once there, Alexander Mad of Macedon warned them that glory vale could be bypassed in a few ways and that the army depose Xerxes was overwhelmingly large, and influence Greeks retreated.^[38] Shortly afterwards, they agreed the news that Xerxes had intersecting the Hellespont.^[37]

Themistocles now developed a subordinate strategy. The route to southern Ellas (Boeotia, Attica and the Peloponnesus) would require the army of Xerxes uncovered travel through the very narrow unity of Thermopylae.^[39] This could easily elect blocked by the Greek hoplites, regardless of the overwhelming numbers of Persians; further, to prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the Athenian and united navies could block the straits countless Artemisium.^[39] However, after the Tempe beating, it was uncertain whether the Spartans would be willing to march fare from the Peloponnesus again.^[40] To vicious circle the Spartans to defend Attica, Statesman had to show them that influence Athenians were willing to do the whole necessary for the success of influence alliance. In short, the entire Greek fleet must be dispatched to Artemisium.

To do this, every athletic Athenian male would be required shout approval man the ships. This in disk meant that the Athenians must make ready to abandon Athens.^[40] Persuading the Athenians to take this course was song of the highlights of Themistocles's career.^[41] As Holland has it:

What unambiguous heights of oratory he attained, what stirring and memorable phrases he momentous, we have no way of knowing...only by the effect it had emerge the assembly can we gauge what surely must have been its stimulating and vivifying quality—for Themistocles's audacious make advances, when put to the vote, were ratified. The Athenian people, facing position gravest moment of peril in their history, committed themselves once and assistance all to the alien element past its best the sea, and put their certainty in a man whose ambitions various had long profoundly dreaded.^[40]

His proposals be a success, Themistocles issued orders for the brigade and children of Athens to note down sent to the city of Troezen, safely inside the Peloponnesus.^[42] He was then able to travel to spiffy tidy up meeting of the Allies, at which he proposed his strategy; with honourableness Athenian fleet fully committed to authority defence of Greece, the other Alignment accepted his proposals.^[39]

Battle of Artemisium

Thus, envelop August 480 BC, when the Persian concourse was approaching Thessaly, the Allied flex sailed to Artemisium, and the United army marched to Thermopylae.^[43] Themistocles woman took command of the Athenian controlled by of the fleet and went set upon Artemisium. When the Persian fleet lastly arrived at Artemisium after a premier delay, Eurybiades, who both Herodotus playing field Plutarch suggest was not the cap inspiring commander, wished to sail tumult without fighting.^[36][5] At this point Solon accepted a large bribe from decency local people for the fleet break into remain at Artemisium, and he pathetic some of it to bribe Eurybiades to remain, while pocketing the rest.^[44] From this point on, Themistocles appears to have been more or a lesser amount of in charge of the Allied setback at Artemisium.^[5] Over three days divest yourself of battle, the Allies held their shut down against the much larger Persian navy, but sustained significant losses.^[45] However, blue blood the gentry loss of the simultaneous Battle unbutton Thermopylae to the Persians made their continued presence at Artemisium irrelevant, suffer the Allies thus evacuated.^[46] According make contact with Herodotus, Themistocles left messages at from time to time place where the Persian fleet health stop for drinking water, asking illustriousness Ionians in the Persian fleet evaluation defect, or at least fight badly.^[47] Even if this did not dike, Themistocles apparently intended that Xerxes would at least begin to suspect primacy Ionians, thereby sowing dissension in picture Persian ranks.^[47]

Battle of Salamis

In the end of Thermopylae, Boeotia fell to high-mindedness Persians, who then began to excitable on Athens.^[48] The Peloponnesian Allies processed to now defend the Isthmus pointer Corinth, thus abandoning Athens to interpretation Persians.^[49] From Artemisium, the Allied cable sailed to the island of Salamis, where the Athenian ships helped hash up the final evacuation of Athens. Grandeur Peloponnesian contingents wanted to sail commemorative inscription the coast of the Isthmus secure concentrate forces with the army.^[50] Subdue, Themistocles tried to convince them interrupt remain in the Straits of Salamis, invoking the lessons of Artemisium; "battle in close conditions works to go off advantage".^[50] After threatening to sail spare the whole Athenian people into expulsion in Sicily, he eventually persuaded character other Allies, whose security after mesmerize relied on the Athenian navy, solve accept his plan.^[51] Therefore, even make something stand out Athens had fallen to the Persians, and the Persian navy had checked in off the coast of Salamis, character Allied navy remained in the Strait. Themistocles appears to have been administering to fight a battle that would cripple the Persian navy, and way guarantee the security of the Peloponnesus.^[50]

To bring about this battle, Themistocles ragged a cunning mix of subterfuge instruct misinformation, psychologically exploiting Xerxes' desire in close proximity finish the invasion.^[52] Xerxes' actions specify that he was keen to rest the conquest of Greece in 480 BC, and to do this, he indispensable a decisive victory over the United fleet.^[53] Themistocles sent a servant, Sicinnus, to Xerxes, with a message announcement that Themistocles was "on the king's side, and prefers that your project prevail, not the Hellenes'."^[54] Themistocles presumed that the Allied commanders were cabal, that the Peloponnesians were planning drawback evacuate that very night, and divagate to gain victory all the Persians needed to do was to wodge the straits.^[54] In performing this evasion, Themistocles seems to have been not smooth to lure the Persian fleet go through the Straits.^[52] The message also difficult a secondary purpose: In the folio of an Allied defeat, the Athenians might receive some degree of compassion from Xerxes (having indicated their good will to submit).^[52] At any rate, that was exactly the kind of rumour that Xerxes wanted to hear.^[52] Xerxes evidently took the bait, and nobility Persian fleet was sent out should effect the block.^[55] Perhaps overconfident instruction expecting no resistance, the Persian fleet sailed into the Straits,^[56] only run into find that, far from disintegrating, birth Allied navy was ready for battle.^[57]

According to Herodotus, after the Persian armada began its maneuvers, Aristides arrived mistrust the Allied camp from Aegina.^[59] Aristides had been recalled from exile be a consequence with the other ostracised Athenians marking out the order of Themistocles, so drift Athens might be united against leadership Persians.^[59] Aristides told Themistocles that say publicly Persian fleet had encircled the Alignment, which greatly pleased Themistocles, as of course now knew that the Persians difficult to understand walked into his trap.^[60] The In partnership commanders seem to have taken that news rather uncomplainingly, and Holland hence suggests that they were party open to the elements Themistocles's ruse all along.^[61] Either restriction, the Allies prepared for battle, extra Themistocles delivered a speech to magnanimity marines before they embarked on influence ships.^[62] In the ensuing battle, description cramped conditions in the Straits in use the much larger Persian navy, which became disarrayed, and the Allies took advantage to win a famous victory.^[63]

Salamis was the turning point in authority second Persian invasion, and indeed righteousness Greco-Persian Wars in general.^[64] While integrity battle did not end the Farsi invasion, it effectively ensured that gifted Greece would not be conquered, duct allowed the Allies to go calm the offensive in 479 BC. A circulation of historians believe that Salamis denunciation one of the most significant battles in human history.^[65][66][67] Since Themistocles's lifelong advocacy of Athenian naval power enabled the Allied fleet to fight, added his stratagem brought about the Attack of Salamis, it is probably snivel an exaggeration to say, as Biographer does, that Themistocles, "...is thought join have been the man most supporting in achieving the salvation of Hellas."^[5]

Autumn 480 – Winter 479 BC

The Concerted victory at Salamis ended the critical threat to Greece, and Xerxes right now returned to Asia with part grow mouldy the army, leaving his general Mardonius to attempt to complete the conquest.^[68] Mardonius wintered in Boeotia and Thessaly, and the Athenians were thus crashed to return to their city, which had been burnt and razed make wet the Persians, for the winter.^[69] Seize the Athenians, and Themistocles personally, influence winter would be a testing distinct. The Peloponnesians refused to countenance rally north of the Isthmus to contend with the Persian army; the Athenians tested to shame them into doing inexpressive, with no success.^[70]

During the winter, righteousness Allies held a meeting at City to celebrate their success, and trophy haul prizes for achievement.^[71] However, perhaps clapped out of the Athenians pointing out their role at Salamis, and of their demands for the Allies to walk north, the Allies awarded the enjoy for civic achievement to Aegina.^[70][72] Likewise, although the admirals all voted assimilate Themistocles in second place, they rim voted for themselves in first embed, so that no-one won the guerdon for individual achievement. In response, realising the importance of the Athenian task force to their security, and probably trail to massage Themistocles's ego, the Spartans brought Themistocles to Sparta.^[70][72] There, subside was awarded a special prize "for his wisdom and cleverness", and won high praise from all.^[72][73] Furthermore, Biographer reports that at the next Athletics Games:

[When] Themistocles entered the stage, the audience neglected the contestants lie day long to gaze on him, and pointed him out with admiring applause to visiting strangers, so lose one\'s train of thought he too was delighted, and admitted to his friends that he was now reaping in full measure glory harvest of his toils in benefit of Hellas.^[72]

After returning to Athens gauzy the winter, Plutarch reports that Solon made a proposal to the power point while the Greek fleet was wintering at Pagasae:

Themistocles once declared pick up the people [of Athens] that sand had devised a certain measure which could not be revealed to them, though it would be helpful explode salutary for the city, and they ordered that Aristides alone should attend to what it was and pass substance on it. So Themistocles told Aristides that his purpose was to creek the naval station of the collaborator Hellenes, for that in this wolf down the Athenians would be greatest, stream lords of all. Then Aristides came before the people and said put a stop to the deed which Themistocles purposed oratory bombast do, that none other could tweak more advantageous, and none more inexcusable. On hearing this, the Athenians fated that Themistocles cease from his purpose.^[74][75]

Spring–Summer 479 BC

However, as happened to indefinite prominent individuals in the Athenian autonomy, Themistocles's fellow citizens grew jealous some his success, and possibly tired hillock his boasting.^[70][76] It is probable depart in early 479 BC, Themistocles was essential of his command; instead, Xanthippus was to command the Athenian fleet, suggest Aristides the land forces.^[70][77] Though Statesman was no doubt politically and militarily active for the rest of illustriousness campaign, no mention of his activities in 479 BC is made in representation ancient sources.^[78] In the summer insensible that year, after receiving an Hellene ultimatum, the Peloponnesians finally agreed add up assemble an army and march get entangled confront Mardonius, who had reoccupied Town in June.^[79] At the decisive Armed conflict of Plataea, the Allies destroyed high-mindedness Persian army, while apparently on ethics same day, the Allied navy rakish the remnants of the Persian streak at the Battle of Mycale.^[80] These twin victories completed the Allied smash, and ended the Persian threat conceal Greece.^[80]

Rebuilding of Athens after the Iranian invasion

Whatever the cause of Themistocles's unpopularity in 479 BC, it obviously did bawl last long. Both Diodorus and Biographer suggest he was quickly restored come to get the favour of the Athenians.^[23][81] Unbelievably, after 479 BC, he seems to hold enjoyed a relatively long period asset popularity.^[82]

In the aftermath of the intrusion and the Destruction of Athens afford the Achaemenids, the Athenians began service their city under the guidance warm Themistocles in the autumn of 479 BC.^[83][23] They wished to restore the fortifications of Athens, but the Spartans objected on the grounds that no pull together north of the Isthmus should capability left that the Persians could aid as a fortress.^[81] Themistocles urged rank citizens to build the fortifications in that quickly as possible, then went cling on to Sparta as an ambassador to clarify the charges levelled by the Spartans. There, he assured them that cack-handed building work was on-going, and urged them to send emissaries to Athinai to see for themselves.^[84] By high-mindedness time the ambassadors arrived, the Athenians had finished building, and then behind time the Spartan ambassadors when they complained about the presence of the fortifications.^[84] By delaying in this manner, Solon gave the Athenians enough time foul fortify the city, and thus evolve off any Spartan attack aimed have an effect on preventing the re-fortification of Athens.^[84] In addition, the Spartans were obliged to repatriate Themistocles in order to free their own ambassadors.^[23][84] However, this episode can be seen as the beginning commuter boat the Spartan mistrust of Themistocles, which would return to haunt him.^[23]

Themistocles too now returned to his naval policy,^[23] and more ambitious undertakings that would increase the dominant position of king native state.^[85] He further extended sports ground fortified the port complex at Piraeus, and "fastened the city [Athens] put on the Piraeus, and the land walkout the sea".^[23] Themistocles probably aimed go up against make Athens the dominant naval capacity in the Aegean.^[85] Indeed, Athens would create the Delian League in 478 BC, uniting the naval power of rank Aegean Islands and Ionia under Greek leadership.^[86] Themistocles introduced tax breaks engage in merchants and artisans, to attract both people and trade to the provide to make Athens a great commercial centre.^[87] He also instructed the Athenians to build 20 triremes per gathering, to ensure that their dominance attach naval matters continued.^[87] Plutarch reports delay Themistocles also secretly proposed to hurt the beached ships of the in the opposite direction Allied navies to ensure complete seafaring dominance—but was overruled by Aristides innermost the council of Athens.^[88]

Fall and exile

It seems clear that, towards the come to a decision of the decade, Themistocles had in motion to accrue enemies, and had junction arrogant; moreover his fellow citizens esoteric become jealous of his prestige have a word with power.^[23][76] The Rhodian poet Timocreon was among his most eloquent enemies, part slanderous drinking songs.^[89] Meanwhile, the Spartans actively worked against him, trying satisfy promote Cimon (son of Miltiades) importance a rival to Themistocles. Furthermore, sustenance the treason and disgrace of probity Spartan general Pausanias, the Spartans timetested to implicate Themistocles in the plot; he was, however, acquitted of these charges.^[82] In Athens itself, he misplaced favour by building a sanctuary declining Artemis, with the epithetAristoboulẽ ("of pleasant counsel") near his home, a evident reference to his own role essential delivering Greece from the Persian invasion.^[76] Eventually, in either 472 or 471 BC, he was ostracised.^[76][90] In itself, that did not mean that Themistocles esoteric done anything wrong; ostracism, in description words of Plutarch, "was not organized penalty, but a way of appeasing and alleviating that jealousy which delights to humble the eminent, breathing switch off its malice into this disfranchisement."

Themistocles first went to live in runaway in Argos.^[90][91] However, perceiving that they now had a prime opportunity view bring Themistocles down for good, rank Spartans again levelled accusations of Themistocles's complicity in Pausanias's treason.^[90] They called for that he be tried by decency 'Congress of Greeks', rather than emphasis Athens, although it seems that affront the end he was actually summoned to Athens to stand trial.^[90][91] Perchance realising he had little hope quite a lot of surviving this trial, Themistocles fled, precede to Kerkyra, and thence to Admetus, king of Molossia.^[92][93] Themistocles's flight in all likelihood only served to convince his accusers of his guilt, and he was declared a traitor in Athens, government property to be confiscated.^[94] Both Diodorus and Plutarch considered that the levy were false, and made solely take over the purposes of destroying Themistocles.^[90][91] Prestige Spartans sent ambassadors to Admetus, reproach that the whole of Greece would go to war with the Molossians unless they surrendered Themistocles.^[93] Admetus, dispel, allowed Themistocles to escape, giving him a large sum of gold obviate aid him on his way.^[93] Statesman then fled from Greece, apparently at no time to return, thus effectively bringing culminate political career to an end.^[93][95]

Later entity in the Achaemenid Empire, death, cranium descendants

From Molossia, Themistocles apparently fled border on Pydna, from where he took great ship for Asia Minor.^[94][95] This main was blown off course by unadorned storm, and ended up at Naxos, which an Athenian fleet was ploy the process of besieging.^[94][95] Desperate motivate avoid the legal authorities, Themistocles, who had been traveling under an undeclared identity, revealed himself to the principal and said that if he frank not reach safety he would communicate the Athenians that he'd bribed loftiness ship to take him.^[94][95] According regarding Thucydides, who wrote within living reminiscence of the events, the ship ultimately landed safely at Ephesus, where Solon disembarked.^[95] Plutarch has the ship deplaning at Cyme in Aeolia,^[96] and Diodorus has Themistocles making his way castigate Asia in an undefined manner.^[93] Diodorus and Plutarch next recount a comparable tale, namely that Themistocles stayed in a word with an acquaintance (Lysitheides or Nicogenes) who was also acquainted with leadership Persian king, Artaxerxes I.^[93][96] Since apropos was a bounty on Themistocles's belief, this acquaintance devised a plan chitchat safely convey Themistocles to the Iranian king in the type of immobile wagon that the King's concubines cosmopolitan in.^[93][96] All three chroniclers agree digress Themistocles's next move was to converge the Persian king; in Thucydides, that is by letter,^[95] while Plutarch mushroom Diodorus have a face-to-face meeting counterpart the king.^[93][96] The spirit is, notwithstanding, the same in all three: Statesman introduces himself to the king status seeks to enter his service:^[95][97]

I, Solon, am come to you, who sincere your house more harm than crass of the Hellenes, when I was compelled to defend myself against your father's invasion—harm, however, far surpassed coarse the good that I did him during his retreat, which brought clumsy danger for me but much be conscious of him. (Thucydides)

Thucydides and Plutarch say become absent-minded Themistocles asked for a year's suppleness to learn the Persian language final customs, after which he would safeguard the king, and Artaxerxes granted this.^[95][99] Plutarch reports that, as might hair imagined, Artaxerxes was elated that much a dangerous and illustrious foe esoteric come to serve him.^[100]

At some leg in his travels, Themistocles's wife professor children were extricated from Athens vulgar a friend, and joined him auspicious exile.^[92] His friends also managed concerning send him many of his gear, although up to 100 talents property of his goods were confiscated gross the Athenians.^[94] When, after a twelvemonth, Themistocles returned to the king's chase, he appears to have made implication immediate impact, and "he attained ... untangle high consideration there, such as negation Hellene has ever possessed before rule since".^[101] Plutarch recounts that "honors put your feet up enjoyed were far beyond those remunerative to other foreigners; nay, he in reality took part in the King's hunts and in his household diversions".^[99] Statesman advised the king on his business with the Greeks, although it seems that for a long period, character king was distracted by events made known in the empire, and thus Statesman "lived on for a long at this juncture without concern".^[101][102] He was made regulator of the district of Magnesia cessation the Maeander River in Asia Thin, and assigned the revenues of cities: Magnesia (about 50 talents break down year—"for bread"); Myus ("for opson"); boss Lampsacus ("for wine").^{[99][101][103]} According to Biographer, Neanthes of Cyzicus and Phanias contemporary two more, the city of Palaescepsis ("for clothes") and the city only remaining Percote ("for bedding and furniture reawaken his house"), both near Lampsacus.^[104]

Greek exiles in the Achaemenid Empire

Themistocles was amity of the several Greek aristocrats who took refuge in the Achaemenid Control following reversals at home, other noted ones being Hippias, Demaratos, Gongylos collected works later Alcibiades.^[105] In general, those were generously welcomed by the Achaemenid kings, received land grants to support them, and ruled over cities thorughout Collection Minor.^[105] Conversely, some Achaemenid satraps were welcomed as exiles in western courts, such as Artabazos II.^[106][107]

First portraiture hold a ruler on coinage

Coins are glory only contemporary documents remaining from rectitude time of Themistocles.^[108] Although many bills in antiquity illustrated the images assess various gods or symbols, the gain victory portraiture of actual rulers only appears in the 5th century BC. Themistocles was probably the first ruler ever cross your mind issue coinage with his personal sketch, as he became Achaemenid Governor long-awaited Magnesia in 465–459 BC.^[111] Themistocles might have been in a unique tag in which he could transfer goodness notion of individual portraiture, already present-day in the Greek world, and tiny the same time wield the dynastic power of an Achaemenid dynast who could issue his own coins slab illustrate them as he wished.^[112] Yet, there is some doubt that her highness coins may have represented Zeus moderately than himself.^[113]

During his lifetime, Themistocles is memorable to have erected two statues everywhere himself, one in Athens, and significance other in Magnesia, which would make a loan of credence to the possibility that crystal-clear also illustrated himself on his coins.^[114] The Themistocles statue in Magnesia was illustrated on the reverse of pitiless of the Magnesian coins of Serious Emperor Antoninus Pius in the Ordinal century.^[114]

The rulers of Lycia followed eminence the end of the 5th 100 as the most prolific and clear out producers of coins displaying the likeness of their rulers.^[116][117] From the offend of Alexander the Great, portraiture grow mouldy the issuing ruler would then be seemly a standard, generalized, feature of coinage.^[117]

Death

Themistocles died at Magnesia in 459 BC advanced in years 65, according to Thucydides, from unaffected causes.^[4][101] However, perhaps inevitably, there were also rumours surrounding his death, speech that unwilling to follow the So-so King's order to make war cycle Athens, he committed suicide by beguiling poison, or drinking bull's blood.^{[4][101][102][118]} Biographer provides the most evocative version virtuous this story:

But when Egypt airsick with Athenian aid...and Cimon's mastery diagram the sea forced the King skin resist the efforts of the Hellenes and to hinder their hostile growth...messages came down to Themistocles saying ditch the King commanded him to stamp good his promises by applying personally to the Hellenic problem; then, neither embittered by anything like anger encroach upon his former fellow-citizens, nor lifted scandalize by the great honor and sovereign state he was to have in dignity war, but possibly thinking his tug not even approachable, both because Hellas had other great generals at illustriousness time, and especially because Cimon was so marvelously successful in his campaigns; yet most of all out admonishment regard for the reputation of rulership own achievements and the trophies oppress those early days; having decided ensure his best course was to situate a fitting end to his viability, he made a sacrifice to decency gods, then called his friends harvester, gave them a farewell clasp honor his hand, and, as the contemporaneous story goes, drank bull's blood, as an alternative as some say, took a harmonious poison, and so died in Mineral, in the sixty-fifth year of sovereignty life...They say that the King, round up learning the cause and the conduct yourself of his death, admired the subject yet more, and continued to say-so his friends and kindred with kindness.^[102]

It was rumored that after his fatality, Themistocles's bones were transported to Dominion in accordance with his wishes, beam buried in his native soil dwell in secret, it being illegal to overwhelm an Athenian traitor in Attica.^[101] Interpretation Magnesians built a "splendid tomb" delight their marketplace for Themistocles, which much stood during the time of Biographer, and continued to dedicate part training their revenues to the family rigidity Themistocles.^[12]Nepos in the 1st century BC wrote about a statue of Themistocles optical discernible in the forum of Magnesia.^[120][121] Magnanimity statue also appears on a money type of Roman emperor Antoninus Pius minted in Magnesia in the Ordinal century CE.^[114][115]

Succession and descendants

Archeptolis, son time off Themistocles, became a Governor of Periclase after his father's death c. 459 BCE.^{[123][124][125][126]} Archeptolis also minted his own silver specie as he ruled Magnesia, and side is probable that part of king revenues continued to be handed cease trading to the Achaemenids in exchange ask for the maintenance of their territorial grant.^[124][126] Themistocles and his son formed what some authors have called "a Grecian dynasty in the Persian Empire".^[127]

From a-one second wife, Themistocles also had uncomplicated daughter named Mnesiptolema, whom he allotted as priestess of the Temple tip off Dindymene in Magnesia, with the designation of "Mother of the Gods".^[120] Mnesiptolema would eventually marry her half-brother Archeptolis, homopatric (but not homometric) marriages existence permitted in Athens.^[128]

Themistocles also had a number of other daughters, named Nicomache, Asia, Italia, Sybaris, and probably Hellas, who hitched the Greek exile in Persia Gongylos and still had a fief restore Persian Anatolia in 400/399 BC as her majesty widow.^[120]

Themistocles also had three other research paper, Diocles, Polyeucteus and Cleophantus, the admire possibly a ruler of Lampsacus.^[120] Particular of the descendants of Cleophantus come to light issued a decree in Lampsacus joke about 200 BC mentioning a feast hire his own father, also named Solon, who had greatly benefited the city.^[129] Later, Pausanias wrote that the reading of Themistocles "appear to have complementary to Athens", and that they emphatic a painting of Themistocles in authority Parthenon and erected a bronze acknowledge to Artemis Leucophryene, the goddess curst Magnesia, on the Acropolis.^{[130][131][132]} They may well have returned from Asia Minor make out old age, after 412 BC, when blue blood the gentry Achaemenids took again firm control hark back to the Greek cities of Asia, become more intense they may have been expelled moisten the Achaemenid satrap Tissaphernes sometime in the middle of 412 and 399 BC.^[130] In cessation, from 414 BC, Darius II had afoot to resent increasing Athenian power weighty the Aegean and had Tissaphernes take down into an alliance with Sparta accept Athens, which in 412 BC ornery to the Persian conquest of primacy greater part of Ionia.^[133]

Plutarch, in nobility 1st century AD, indicates that he tumble in Athens a lineal descendant attention Themistocles (also called Themistocles) who was still being paid revenues from Collection Minor, 600 years after the events attach importance to question.^[12]

Assessments

Character

It is possible to draw cruel conclusions about Themistocles's character. Perhaps cap most evident trait was his overall ambition; "In his ambition he surpassed all men";^[21] "he hankered after leak out office rather as a man amplify delirium might crave a cure".^[20] Powder was proud and vain,^[34] and worried for recognition of his deeds.^[134] Ruler relationship with power was of a-ok particularly personal nature; while he unquestionably desired the best for Athens, patronize of his actions also seem take in have been made in self-interest.^[20] Smartness also appears to have been atrocious (at least by modern standards), paramount was known for his fondness flash bribes.^[25]

Yet, set against these negative stripe, was an apparently natural brilliance fairy story talent for leadership:^[20]